1.
The effects of fat consumption on low-density lipoprotein particle size in healthy individuals: a narrative review.
Froyen, E
Lipids in health and disease. 2021;(1):86
Abstract
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the number one contributor to death in the United States and worldwide. A risk factor for CVD is high serum low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) concentrations; however, LDL particles exist in a variety of sizes that may differentially affect the progression of CVD. The small, dense LDL particles, compared to the large, buoyant LDL subclass, are considered to be more atherogenic. It has been suggested that replacing saturated fatty acids with monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids decreases the risk for CVD. However, certain studies are not in agreement with this recommendation, as saturated fatty acid intake did not increase the risk for CVD, cardiovascular events, and/or mortality. Furthermore, consumption of saturated fat has been demonstrated to increase large, buoyant LDL particles, which may explain, in part, for the differing outcomes regarding fat consumption on CVD risk. Therefore, the objective was to review intervention trials that explored the effects of fat consumption on LDL particle size in healthy individuals. PubMed and Web of Science were utilized during the search process for journal articles. The results of this review provided evidence that fat consumption increases large, buoyant LDL and/or decreases small, dense LDL particles, and therefore, influences CVD risk.
2.
The Effects of Linoleic Acid Consumption on Lipid Risk Markers for Cardiovascular Disease in Healthy Individuals: A Review of Human Intervention Trials.
Froyen, E, Burns-Whitmore, B
Nutrients. 2020;(8)
Abstract
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death worldwide. Risk factors for developing this disease include high serum concentrations of total cholesterol, triglycerides, low-density lipoproteins, very-low density lipoproteins, and low concentrations of high-density lipoproteins. One proposed dietary strategy for decreasing risk factors involves replacing a portion of dietary saturated fatty acids with mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). The essential omega-6 PUFA, linoleic acid (LA), is suggested to decrease the risk for CVD by affecting these lipid risk markers. Reviewing human intervention trials will provide further evidence of the effects of LA consumption on risk factors for CVD. PubMed was used to search for peer-reviewed articles. The purpose of this review was: (1) To summarize human intervention trials that studied the effects of LA consumption on lipid risk markers for CVD in healthy individuals, (2) to provide mechanistic details, and (3) to provide recommendations regarding the consumption of LA to decrease the lipid risk markers for CVD. The results from this review provided evidence that LA consumption decreases CVD lipid risk markers in healthy individuals.
3.
Alpha-Linolenic and Linoleic Fatty Acids in the Vegan Diet: Do They Require Dietary Reference Intake/Adequate Intake Special Consideration?
Burns-Whitmore, B, Froyen, E, Heskey, C, Parker, T, San Pablo, G
Nutrients. 2019;11(10)
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Plain language summary
Fish and seafood are good sources of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids, like eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). A vegan diet does not include animal-sourced foods and is therefore void of EPA and DHA, unless algae-derived omega-3 supplements are consumed. Thus, vegans rely on the body's own production of long-chain fatty acids from plant-derived alpha-linolenic acid (ALA). However, adequate conversion can have several limitations. Vegan diets are generally rich in linoleic acid (LA), an omega-6 fatty acid, which in high levels can impede the conversion of ALA to EPA and DHA. Furthermore, the efficiency of conversion is influenced by gender, age or health conditions like obesity. This review sought to discuss whether vegans require special dietary recommendations for fatty acids and what these suggestions could be. Most studies assessing biological indicators of fatty acid status showed that vegans had lower levels of EPA and DHA compared to omnivores. Thus, the authors concluded that special consideration should be given to ALA and LA intake in vegan diets. In the absence of a set recommendation for a fatty acid ratio, a ratio of 4:1 (omega-6:omega-3) was proposed for vegans and omnivores. A reduction in LA and an increased intake of ALA of 2.2–4.4 g/day (or 1.1 g/day/1000 Kcals) was suggested to achieve such. This article is a useful guide when considering adequate fatty acid balance and omega-3 conversion for individuals following a vegan diet.
Abstract
Good sources of the long-chain n-3 fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) include cold-water fish and seafood; however, vegan diets (VGNs) do not include animal-origin foods. Typically, US omnivores obtain enough dietary EPA and DHA, but unless VGNs consume algal n-3 supplements, they rely on endogenous production of long-chain fatty acids. VGN diets have several possible concerns: (1) VGNs have high intakes of linoleic acid (LA) as compared to omnivore/non-vegetarian diets. (2) High intakes of LA competitively interfere with the endogenous conversion of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) to EPA and DHA. (3) High somatic levels of LA/low ALA indicate a decreased ALA conversion to EPA and DHA. (4) Some, not all VGNs meet the Dietary Reference Intake Adequate Intake (DRI-AI) for dietary ALA and (5) VGN diets are high in fiber, which possibly interferes with fat absorption. Consequently, health professionals and Registered Dietitians/Registered Dietitian Nutritionists working with VGNs need specific essential fatty acid diet guidelines. The purpose of this review was: (1) to suggest that VGNs have a DRI-AI Special Consideration requirement for ALA and LA based on VGN dietary and biochemical indicators of status and (2) to provide suggestions to ensure that VGNs receive adequate intakes of LA and ALA.